The Importance of the Army in the State of Lithuania from the 13th Century to the Beginning of the 20th Century

The Military Science of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Historically, the Lithuanians are considered to be a nation of warriors. The success of their predatory war was due largely to the element of surprise: the country that was not warned about the danger of an assault was not prepared for defence, and its residents failed to hide themselves and their riches. At the beginning of the 13th century, the Lithuanians' military skills were adapted to a predatory war. From the 13th through the first half of the 15th centuries, the Lithuanian Army beat off the attacks of the Order of the Knights of the Cross-and the Golden Horde of the Tatars.

The Saule Battle 1236 09 22	The Durbe Battle 1260

The first signs of modern military formations and tactics started to take shape in the first half of the 13th century. At that time the Lithuanians used horses only as a means of transport, and riders would dismount in order to battle the enemy. These tactics were characteristic of a defensive army – if time and circumstances allowed, the Lithuanian warriors fenced themselves in with cut trees, and in this way they tried to hold off the enemy's onslaught and at the same time to force an elemental fight upon the enemy. The thrust of unfavourable conditions upon the enemy should be considered as the Lithuanians' main tactical principle. On the basis of this principle, the Lithuanians won most of their famous victories such as: the battles of Saule, Durbe, and Karuse. These victories proved the theory that the experience of a hunter could be easily transformed into the skills of a soldier. However, only the existence of the Grand Duke's power could guarantee the continuance of such victories, since only his power could help prevent the fatal consequences of the competitive internal struggles among the clans. Defensive architecture prevailed in the early centuries in Lithuania, as opposed to the neighbouring Christian countries where sacral architecture dominated. Stone castles are the stable heritage of the past. Suppositions are made that some secondary castles of the Germans' Order in Prussia were built according to the technology of Lithuanian castle building. Undoubtedly, the Balts' resourcefulness was reflected in the Lithuanian or Prussian shield, which was called ”pavis". Its construction was very comfortable because it covered not only the warrior's front, but also somewhat his flanks, and what was most important – it could neutralize a stab from an enemy by deflecting it to the side.

The Tanenberg (Zalgiris) Battle 1410

At the end of the 14th century, the Lithuania army started to use artillery. One hundred fifty years later, the Grand Duke of Lithuania had at least 364 cannons, among which half of them were of modern types. Those modern cannons were brought to Lithuania from Poland. Later, some modern cannons were made in Vilnius, where there was a gun foundry that was established in 1551.

The employment of such modern military equipment is evidence that creative energy was subjected to military purposes. Therefore, the most appropriate description of the culture of pagan Lithuania is a military one.

In the 16th century, it was necessary to organize the defence of the country against the quick as lightening assaults of the Crimean Tatars. The noblemen called up for military service were not suitable, due to the slow pace of mobilization. The system of defence against the Tatars was based on the organization of reconnaissance in the southern borders of the country, and also on the garrisons in the castles. The struggles against the Tatars served as a military school for both the professional soldiers and nobles.

From the 16th century, nobles had to do their duty in the military service personally. According to the 16th century sources, he brought with him properly armed horsemen from his domain. The noblemen's detachments formed a separate category in the joint army of the conscript military service. That was the most valuable part of the military structure of the GDL. In 1567, among the 4,800 horsemen who were trained by the gentlemen assessors were: 2,000 (40%) hussars (shock cavalry), 650 (14%) cossacks (light cavalry with amours, swords and bows) and 600 (13%) armoured warriors (the armament is not known).

The Hussars' military formations – Colours – consisted of up to 150 people. In the second half of the 17th century, there was a very popular rider, called the Winged Hussar, among the armies of the GDL and Poland. Attached to the armour on his back were wings made of the feathers of an eagle, swan or wild goose. The contemporaries wrote that it was the most wonderful horseman in the world: the glittering metal of the armour covered with the fur of a bear, leopard or tiger on the back, flags, along with wings and fiery horses, made an imposing and frightening sight. The custom to fasten the wings on the back came from Asia. Alongside with decorative and ritual functions, (the wings were to give the horseman speed), they also had a defensive use, because they hindered attempts to throw the rider down from his horse. The Winged Hussars’ armour was so strong that it could restrain the fire shot of a musket from a distance of 20 strides. Their armour was decorated with different symbols. The most popular ornament was a picture of the Virgin Mary on the left side of the chest, and a cross on the right. The armament consisted of a pike (five meters long), a battle sword (curved), a straight sword (170 cm long and which was used for running through the enemy's helmet), and two pistols which were kept in the holsters near the saddle.

Most hetman of the GDL (Jonas Karolis Chodkevichius, Jonushas Radvila, etc.) were specialists of military science. They all graduated from universities of Western Europe.

In the 17th century, the domination of mathematics in science was also reflected in the military service. It was not possible to defeat bastions without knowing geometry. It was impossible to shoot an artillery gun precisely without being acquainted with the fundamentals of ballistics, and it was very difficult to occupy a well-fortified enemy's castle without war engineers. The state of Lithuania and Poland had highly qualified specialists in these spheres. They included both locals and foreigners. Among the most outstanding specialists in the theory and application of artillery was Kazimieras Semenavichius. Still today, the work entitled ”The Great Art of Artillery", by K. Semenavichius, is called a miracle of the technology of the Middle Ages. In 1971, it was published again in London as a very rare and incredibly valuable monument of science.

Semenavichius is estimated to have been born in 1600 or later in Zhemaitija, as the coat of arms shows, in the district of Raseiniai. Semenavichius was the deputy commander of the artillery forces of the joint Lithuanian and Polish army. He fought in the battles against the army of Moscow near Smolensk, and also in the battles against the Tatars. The Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Vladislav Vaza sent him abroad to extend his knowledge, and he found a generous supporter in Holland. There he published his work. This study by Semenavichius was translated into the main European languages, and was published several times in German. It was the primary reference text for the artilleryman for 150 years. It was an imposing theoretical and practical textbook describing how to produce and use rockets, which could fly further and hit their targets more accurately than conventional cannonballs of metal or granite.

In the 17th century, there were many powerful fortresses with bastions built in the GDL. They could hold off the enemy's siege. Most of the fortresses in the GDL, such as Birzhai, Nesvyzhius, Liachovichiai, Senasis Bychovas, and Sluckas, were private. Thus, the noblemen and the local government had more influence upon the defense policy of the country than the central (sovereign) government.

The openness to war innovations was the factor that changed the power relations between the Republic and its main rivals – Sweden and Russia. The cavalry of the Republic could trample the Swedish infantry easily, until Adolph Gustav reformed his army according to western principles, and in this way strengthened the infantry's firepower.

Starting in the beginning of the 17th century, mercenaries played the main part in the army of GDL. At that time, hussars dominated in the army of the GDL, and they formed 24-43% of the army and 42-63% of the cavalry. But the most striking feature of the military organization of the GDL was the absence of a permanent army. In 1717, the ”Silent Seimas", dictated by Russia, set the size of the regular army: 18,000 soldiers for Poland and 6,000 for Lithuania (in fact, there were even fewer soldiers: until 1775, about 4, 000 soldiers served in the army of the GDL). In comparison with foreign countries, (Russia had 350,000, Austria – 280,000, Prussia- 200,000), such forces were really very poor and were fit only for parades and fighting robbers.

Attempts to reform the army were revised when Stanislovas Augustas (1766-1795) came to the throne. Probably the most valuable fruit of the reform, in 1764-1776, was his foundation of the school of knights in Warsaw, in 1765. There were such outstanding war commanders as Tadas Kosciushka, Jokubas Jasinskis, and Kazimieras Nestoras Sapiega among its pupils. The new generation gained military knowledge, and also a patriotic spirit was inspired at this school. To its credit, the new generation did not sit silently when the State was going to ruin, but chose to fight even though greatly outnumbered. Though Kosciushka's rebellion was suppressed, it remained as an example of not bowing to brutal aggression.

On the eve of the Four Years' Seimas in the GDL the army was small, its armament old and accoutrements worn out.

The army of the GDL was a self-dependent institution with its own name, personnel, territory of operation, material basis, traditions, symbolic and some other features of independence. On the other hand, the Lithuania Army was a part of the armed forces of the Republic of both Nations. It fell subject to the common governing body together with the army of the Kingdom of Poland. Similar forms of organization, ranks, types of armament, and language connected them.

The Four Years' Seimas existed during the period when the threat to the State of Lithuania and Poland increased, and it did great work making the army larger, stronger, and improving its system of supply. On the eve of reforms, the army of the GDL consisted of about 4,700 soldiers. In 1789-1790, its size was doubled, increasing to 9,900 soldiers. At the beginning of the war of 1792, there were 17,500 soldiers; and together with Radvila's militia – about 19,000 soldiers.

The army of 1788 could be categorized as a kind of police force, serving interior purposes and ceremonial functions. In 1791, the army was an organization that served the needs of war.

The work of the Four Years' Seimas regarding their transformation of the army can be evaluated positively. It accomplished more in that comparatively short period of time than was done during the whole 18th century.

The Great Prussian feudal lord Frederick Wilhelm created the regular national army in Prussia in the 18th century. It was the most battle-prepared army of that time.

The dragoon (from the Latin word Draco – dragon) was a mounted infantryman in the 16th-17th centuries. Dragoons used to move from one place to another on horseback. When they encountered enemies, they would dismount and fight on foot. Dragoons were armed like infantry-musketeers. The dragoon fought on foot until the time of Adolph Gustav. Adolph reformed his dragoons and made them horsemen who could fight not only on foot, but on horseback, as well.

In 1717, the Lithuanian Dragoons Regiment No.1 (Litausches Dragoner Regiment Nr 1) was formed in Lithuania Minor. The Prussian army was organized according to provinces, and that regiment was the one designated for Lithuania Minor. The Lithuanians from Lithuania Minor served in it. The commander of that regiment was the Prussian prince, Albrecht. The squadrons of the regiment were kept in Tilzhe, Ragaine, Stalupenai, Pilkalnis, Galdape, Isrutis, and elsewhere.

The soldiers of the regiment were allowed to speak Lithuanian among themselves and to sing Lithuanian songs about feats of arms, but they had to use German while addressing military officers.

The Lithuanians who served in that regiment were valued because of their reputation of taking good care of horses. During the course of the War of 1812, the regiment fought on the side of Napoleon, and against him, too. It also fought against Austria in 1866 and against Russia in World War I, in which it lost about 1,000 soldiers and 19 officers. The regiment returned to Tilzhe in February of 1919, and in October it was disbanded. Some parts of it were distributed amongst other military formations.

Part of an interesting monument near the ruins of the crusaders' castle of Įsrutis miraculously survived. It was built to honour the horsemen of the 12th Lithuanian Uhlans' Regiment during the battles for Prussia. The pedestal with its inscription of thanks in German still stands there. The sculpture standing on it – a Lithuanian uhlan on horseback – was overturned after the war.

After the downfall of the united State of Lithuania and Poland, Lithuania fell under the control of tsarist Russia, and patriots started to search for foreign support in order to restore their lost independence. They tried to win Sweden, Turkey, and Prussia over to their side. Unfortunately, those attempts failed. They then turned their sights toward revolutionary France. In 1796, Duke M. Oginskis, (the author of a famous polonaise), who represented the Lithuanian diaspora in Turkey, addressed Napoleon by means of a letter from Constantinople. The letter reached the addressee in Italy.

”The state routed by its neighbours can only be restored by use of arms' said Napoleon after reading the letter by Oginskis.

On July 1st, 1812, Napoleon formed a separate Lithuanian government. Its main task was to organize the armed forces and supply. According to the decree of the Lithuanian government, five infantry and four cavalry regiments were formed. Later on, six more infantry regiments were established. In all, there were 20,000 Lithuanian soldiers in the Lithuanian regiments of the French army.

After the failure of the 1794 rebellion, the State of Lithuania and Poland was divided by Austria, Prussia and Russia in 1795 for the third time. The largest part of the territory of Lithuania was absorbed into the territory of the Russian Empire.

In 1830, a revolutionary movement started in France and Belgium. The Russian czar planned to suppress it by sending the Polish army. But on November 29th, 1830 a rebellion started in Warsaw, cancelling those plans. In February of 1831, Russia's army crossed the Kingdom of Poland, and fierce fights erupted between the armies of Poland and Russia.

On March 25th, 1831, a rebellion started in the district of Raseiniai and spread all over Lithuania. The rebels formed subunits and attacked Russian garrisons.

In June of 1831, regiments of the Polish army arrived to assist the rebels. The commanders of those regiments were A. Gelgaudas and D. Chlapovskis. Several hundred Lithuanian officers serving in the Polish army came together with them. The regiments of both nations fought shoulder to shoulder against the common invaders under the guidance of the motto, ”For our and your freedom. However, the forces were unequal, and in July the majority of the rebels' army was forced to cross the frontier and intern in Prussia. Under the leadership of general H. Dembinskis, the remaining rebels broke through the enemy's barrages and reached Warsaw, where they fought until the rebellion was suppressed. Later on they emigrated abroad.

The Lithuanians and Poles saved France and Belgium from the invasion of the Russian army. The rebellion woke the Lithuanians up for the fight against invaders and for national and social liberation.

Capt Emilia Pliateryte at the Battle near Siauliai

The Rebellion of 1863

Lengthy conscription, a lack of political rights, national and economic oppression, the persecution of the Catholic Church, and coarse Russification evoked hatred for the invaders and a determination to fight for freedom. Therefore, the beginning of the armed rebellion of 1863 was an expression of that dissatisfaction. Kostas Kalinauskas started to lead the rebels of the district of Gardinas. Zigmantas Sierakauskas, previously a captain of the Russian General Staff, led the rebels of the Vilnius district.

In 1861, resistance against the invaders began in some districts of Lithuania. In the same year, martial law was declared in the districts of Vilnius, Kaunas, and Gardinas. In the beginning of December 1862, armed with pitchforks and scythes, the workers at the manor of Leckavas repelled the army that had arrived to recruit conscripts. After this, the government of the Tsar even prohibited the sale of scythes.

Since January of 1863, Russian army subunits were posted at all schools, near churches, and in all public places. A campaign was established to enlarge the size of the Russian Army. In 1862, there were 66,500 soldiers and non-commissioned officers in the province of Vilnius. By the end of the year there were 145,000 soldiers. The troops were distributed everywhere: in all the towns and large settlements. The presence of punitive detachments (or so called ”flittering detachments") was common along the roads, terrorizing the population.

The rebellion encompassed the larger part of occupied Lithuania. Liudvikas Narbutas, (the son of the famous historian Teodoras Narbutas), was one of the first organizers who formed a detachment of about 1,000 rebels in the province of Vilnius. A famous painter, M. E. Andriolis, had a rebel detachment consisting mostly of Vilnius residents.

From May 13th, 1863, the rebels and their families began to be dealt with especially fiercely. This followed the appointment of M. Muravjov as the general governor of the military district of Vilnius. He soon began to be referred to as the ”hangman".

About 12,703 residents of Lithuanian provinces were exiled to Siberia and the far regions of Russia for penal servitude for either taking part in the rebellion or supporting the rebels.

On the 16th of February 1918, the Council of Lithuania, under the chairmanship of Antanas Smetona, declared the restoration of independence; however, the country continued to suffer harsh oppression from other invaders – the Germans. Thus, real preconditions for the realization of independence only appeared when Germany finally lost World War I in the autumn of that same year.

On November 23rd, the Ministry of Defence issued order No. 1. According to that order, it was necessary to found the Council of Defence. Colonel Jurgis Kubilius was appointed as the Chief of Staff of the Ministry of Defence, and Colonel Jonas Galvydis-Bykauskas as the chief of a regiment that was being formed in Alytus. Thus, November 23rd is the official birthday of the Lithuanian Army. At that time there were about 100 commissioned officers and military officials, and about 50 soldier volunteers.

On December 29th, Prime Minister Mykolas Slezhevichius, and the Minister of Defence, Mykolas Velykis, issued a proclamation calling upon citizens to join the Lithuanian Army on a voluntary basis. Mostly peasants and senior pupils joined the army. Very few men from the towns joined, because the towns at that time were not Lithuanian. The men from the districts of Panevezhys, Kaunas, Marijampole, Shiauliai, Vilkavishkis, and Shakiai made up the largest number of volunteers, and the men from the districts of Mazheikiai and Telshiai made up the smallest number of volunteers. The absolute majority of volunteers were Lithuanians. There were a few representatives from other nationalities; for example, there were 67 Latvians and just 5 Poles.

On January 5th, 1919, the Russians occupied Vilnius. Later, Aukshtaitija, Dzukija, and the larger part of Zhemaitija also fell into their hands. They intended to encircle Kaunas, where the government was working at that time, by routing the garrisons of Alytus and Kaunas. A subunit of the Lithuanian Army, which was raised at that time, and which was poorly dressed and armed and also badly trained, had to go to the front. In February, the Lithuanians defeated the Russians in the sector of Kėdainiai. The first Lithuanian enlisted casualty, Povilas Lukshys, fell there. The first officer to die in the battles of independence was the commander of the 1st Regiment, Antanas Juozapavichius. He fell in the battle in Alytus. In the spring, Shiauliai, Radvilishkis, Panevėzhys, and Ukmerge were liberated. On August 25th, the town of Zarasai was also liberated, and the battalions of Marijmapolė and Panevezhys reached the Dauguva River.

Lithuanian Army Beats off the Bolsheviks' Attack near Alunta 1919

The fights against the Russian Red Army were not yet finished when, in Latvia and the North of Lithuania, a new enemy started to congregate. That new enemy was the so-called ”bermontininkai". They were mostly Russians, who were in captivity of the Germans and German volunteers. They numbered about 50,000. The ”bermontininkai", who were well armed, tried to gain control of the Radvilishkis-Shiauliai-Jelgava and Shiauliai-Taurage railway lines, and the Shiauliai-Tilzhe highway. They looted and terrorized local inhabitants. On 21-22 November, the 1st and 2nd regiments of infantry of the Lithuanian Army attacked the ”bermontininkai" near Radvilishkis and liberated that city. The town of Shiauliai was set free on the 7th of December, and by the middle of December there were no ”bermontininkai" left in Lithuania.

The Attack against the Col P. Bermont-Avalov's Troops 1919

The self-defence of Lithuania was in danger of an aggressive Polish policy. Poland had the ambition of creating a state ”from one sea to the other", and this entailed the inclusion of Lithuania as part of it. In the spring of 1919, the first armed conflicts with the Poles started.

In April 1920, Poland attacked Soviet Russia, but the Polish Army suffered a defeat and had to retreat.

The Poles managed to beat the Russians near Warsaw and to halt their further advance. After recovering, they started to attack Lithuania. The Poles occupied southern Suvalkija and continued their attack. On September 23rd, they were able to occupy Druskininkai, and by the beginning of October, Varena was occupied, too.

The ”Antante" states hadn't expected such aggression from the side of Poland. The League of Nations urgently passed a resolution obliging Poland to cease their attack. After long arguments, the Treaty of Suvalkai was signed. But the day after the signing of the treaty, under instructions from Pilsudskis, General Zheligovski declared himself an insurgent and started an offensive drive toward Jashiunai-Vilnius. 3 infantry battalions, 1 cavalry squadron, and 1 battery of artillery defended Vilnius. On October 9th, the Poles occupied Vilnius and continued their assault. The Lithuanians managed to defeat the Poles near Shirvintai and Giedraichiai.

The Bayonet Battle against Polish Army near Sirvintos

On November 29th, a treaty between Poland and Lithuania was signed through the mediation of the Control Commission of the League of Nations. However, one third of the territory of Lithuania (Vilnius, Gardinas, Suvalkai) remained in the hands of the invaders. But the primary purpose was achieved – that being the freedom and independence of Lithuania. The Lithuanian Army played a decisive role – as much territory as in the end was successfully defended by the Lithuanian soldier with a gun in his hands, remained as part of Lithuania. Only after defending itself against all enemies with intentions to occupy Lithuanian territory, was diplomatic recognition won. In 1920, the chairman of the Peace Delegation of the League of Nations told the Lithuanian delegation: ”You owe your thanks for the independence of your nation, not to the Conference of Ambassadors and not to the League of Nations, but to your own courageous army."

In 1918, the state of Lithuania was restored after the Russian oppression, which lasted for 120 years, but Lithuania enjoyed this status for only 22 years. In 1918-1920, the war for the consolidation of Lithuania in Europe, in the world, and in its citizens' consciousness started, and it required not less effort or determination than long ago from King Mindaugas. Every member of the Council of Lithuania who signed the statement of the declaration of independence on February 16th, 1918, every volunteer of the 1918-1920 war and every young person called up for military service could be called ”King Mindaugas". The only difference was that they were not crowned; in fact, they crowned all the citizens of Lithuania. They obligated our nation to guard, defend and develop the State of Lithuania forever.

The fight for the independence of a state has an eternal value. Every soldier in that fight is deserving of our pride and gratitude.

In conclusion, it would be good to mention the path of the future, which is related with European Union and NATO, and which will protect us from the destruction we suffered under the evil Soviet empire, against which Lithuanian partisans fought. However, we do have to continue to guard the values of our nation, to be good citizens of Lithuania, to respect our language and its cultural heritage, to understand the value of those who fought for liberty and their contribution to our freedom, and to understand our civic duty.

The first Lithuanian Army Oath